By Mohammed Zaki Trache

With The Middle East suffering from sever water shortages various countries in the region have resorted to relying heavily on desalination, collectively holding 33% of global planned desalination plants. The desalination process characteristically demands large quantities of energy, rendering the costs associated with desalination greater than its alternatives, which include groundwater excavation and other methods of water recycling. However, the geographic location as well as the water poor climate of the Middle East solidifies desalination as an important method to obtain consumable water.

Desalination processes traditionally are only associated with the transformation of saltwater into water fit for human consumption or irrigation purposes. However, technological advances in desalination methods is quickly allowing for a broader range of inputs into the desalination process, allowing the processing of industrial and agricultural wastewater (brackish water), all the while resulting in a more cost effective practice. 

Furthermore, while desalination methods vary depending on the application, they may be categorized into two technologies:

1. Thermal Heating Technology

Thermal technology requires energy in the form of heat to obtain pure water from the distillation process of saline water vapor. The energy requirements for thermal heating are substantial; therefore thermal desalination technology is more popular for salt-water desalination rather than brackish water. 

Thermal technology includes three different processes:

a. Multiple Stage Flash Process (MSF)

This process, which is shown here, uses evaporating chambers, called stages, at decreasing pressures to conduct the distillation process. The initial seawater is heated under high pressure and then enters the first chamber, which is at a lower pressure level. The pressure drop causes the water to boil rapidly causing it to evaporate. This process, known as flashing, is further repeated throughout the stages due to the declining pressures across each stage. 

The vapor created from each stage is then condensed through heat exchanger tubes, which are kept at low temperatures by cold seawater water, in each stage forming freshwater. A major characteristic of the heat exchanger is that only a small percentage of the feed water is converted into vapor and condensed thus producing a small amount of freshwater. 


b. Multi-Effect Distillation

Multi-effect distillation (MED), shown here, contains a series of chambers, called effects, where evaporation and condensation occurs at reduced ambient pressures. In MED, a series of evaporator effects produce water at progressively lower pressures. Due to this decrease in pressure, water is boiled at lower temperatures and subsequently the water vapor produced in the first effect serves as the heating medium for the second and so on. 

c. Vapor Compression distillation

Vapor Compression distillation (VCD) may be operated as either a stand-alone process or as an add-on to an existing process, such as MED.  As the name implies, vapor compression provides the heat required for water evaporation. The most commonly available configuration contains a mechanical compressor, compressing the vapor and providing heat. VCDs are most commonly found in small-scale applications such as desalination plants for individual neighborhoods, hotels, and hospitals. 

2. Membrane Technology

Electrodialyis/Electrodialysis Reversal (ED/EDR)

Although ED and EDR were originally conceived as a seawater desalination process, the electrical process works better for lower salinity water (brackish water). Therefore, membrane technology has been mainly used for treating of brackish wastewater.

Electrodialysis uses an electrical potential to move salts through a membrane, leaving fresh water behind as product water, where as ED relies on the fact that most salts dissolved in water are either positively charged ions called cations or negatively charged ions called anions. Therefore ions are attracted to electrodes at an opposite electric charge. This allows for the construction of selective membranes that only allow passage for either anions or cations. 

Inside the plants these membranes are placed in alternate order: Anion-permeable membrane followed by a cation-permeable membrane. As saline solution flows through the system, salt is reduced in one channel, while concentrated solutions are gathered at the electrodes in the spaces between the alternating membranes, which are called cells. One ED unit consists of several hundred cells bound together with electrodes, and is referred to as a stack. Once saline water passes through both membranes, fresh water is produced.

Reverse Osmosis (RO).

Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon in which water containing a low salt concentration passes into a more concentrated solution through a semi-permeable membrane. With reverse osmosis, pressure is applied to the solution with the higher salt concentration solution allowing a reversal in the water flow through the membrane causing the salt to be blocked by the membrane, thus creating fresh water.

The RO desalination process may be subdivided into 4 different stages; the pretreatment stage, high-pressure pump stage, membrane system stage, and the post treatment stage.

The pre-treatment stage includes removing any solid material that may be contained in the water, which could cause harm to the semi-permeable membranes used later in the process. It also constitutes of water pretreatment, to ensure the membranes are free from salt precipitation or microbial growth. This pre-treatment entails methods such as using chemical feed followed by coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation, and sand filtration. Different considerations may affect the type of pre-treatment chosen, which include the quality of the feed water, space considerations, and RO membrane requirements. 

The high-pressure pump stage provides the pressure needed to enable the untreated water to pass through the membrane. The pressures vary depending on the salt content of the feed water, ranging from about 150 pounds per square inch (psi) for slightly brackish water to 800 - 1,000 psi for seawater. This allows for a more effective and efficient treatment of saline water.

In the membrane system stage, RO membranes are usually either spiral wound and Hollow fiber. Spiral wound membranes, the most popular membranes, constitute of materials such as of cellulose acetate or of other composite polymers. In the spiral wound design, the membrane is wrapped around a central water collection tube. Under pressure, the feed water then flows within the spiral membrane, allowing for desalinated water to be collected within the central collecting tube (This process is shown here).


After the feed water passes through the membrane and is processed, the remaining water increases in salt content. in the post treatment stage It is necessary that a portion of the feed water is discharged without passing through the membrane, as without this, the pressurized feed water would continue to increase in salinity content, resulting in salt super saturation. The percentage of feed water which is discharged without passing through the membrane depends on the original salinity of the feed water, with an average figure ranging from 20 percent for brackish water to about 50 percent for seawater. 


Finally once these 4 processes have been completed, fresh water is produced and can be used for municipal and agricultural purposes.

Conclusion

It is evident that with a plethora of treatment processes, creating new freshwater sources should not be difficult. Furthermore, in an attempt to make these processes less energy intensive and environmentally friendly, countries across the Middle East have been attempting to incorporate renewable energy use with desalination processes to allow for a more efficient and environmentally friendly way of producing fresh water. However in order for this to be achieved heavy investment in the technology and knowledge required is key.  Only then can one look ahead for a water rich Middle East.

By Amir Dakkak

With only 1.4% of the world’s freshwater resources serving 6.3% of the global population, it is no secret that the MENA region is one of the most water scarce regions in the world. The biggest sufferer of the MENA region is most definitely the GCC region. Increasing water use efficiency, and increasing water supply (mainly through desalination, and to some extent wastewater treatment) have been used to try and solve this dilemma. Although processes such as desalination and wastewater treatment have their positive effects in terms of increasing a country’s water supply, they also have negative impacts on the environment through their intensive carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and aquatic habitat destruction. This has given rise to different methods aimed at reducing such detrimental effects. In fact, a very interesting article by Dr. Nasser al Saidi (founder and president of Nasser Saidi & Associates) about Solving the GCC’s water crisis (http://bit.ly/LA5q1P) has brought focus to a particular way forward: renewables-based desalination. In his article, Dr. Nasser indicates that “green desalination” along with more rational pricing of water utilization should become a clear policy priority for addressing water scarcity in the GCC region. He also states that the GCC should aim to create an ecosystem that is resource efficient, does not contribute to climate change, while addressing not only the region’s severe water scarcity but also the related complications associated with polluting energy technologies. To further expand on Dr. Saidi’s thoughts on this subject, Arab Water source conducted a more detailed interview with the man himself.

1. Amir Dakkak (AD): Since using desalination plants powered by renewable energy offers a viable solution to the GCC's water crisis, why has it taken such a long time for the GCC to construct such projects especially when all the resources seem to be available? 

Dr. Nasser Saidi (NS): Using renewable energy such as solar for desalination is still a young and evolving technology, although it is likely to spread rapidly in the GCC, which has some 40% of global desalination capacity. Although costs have substantially declined to make use financially viable, governments and public utilities are not familiar with the application of RE technologies to desalination. Two, there is a lack of established policy frameworks and tools to encourage the use of renewables. For example there are no feed-in tariff policies in place. Three, GCC governments actively promote the use of fossil fuels through large subsidies for the use of oil and gas in power production, which is directly linked to desalination. Without radical reform of strategies and policies, renewables and by extension renewables-based desalination will continue to be a sadly missed opportunity to protect our environment and gradually remove the expensive burden of subsidies, which represent some 4.5% of GDP and eat up more than 25% of government revenues in the MENA oil exporting countries. Removing subsidies will not be a trivial matter since it will be opposed by a strong lobby which has long benefited from subsidies. A good start is to move away from the existing systems of untargeted subsidies which largely benefit the rich and not the intended target of the poor.

2. AD: Does culture play a big part in the acceptance of renewable desalination?

NS: There is no cultural issue related to accepting renewables-based desalination. There may be a lack of information and awareness of the technological possibilities. Diffusion of new technologies takes times this happens at the margin and in new investments.  If anything, there is a global lack of awareness of the benefits of adopting renewable technologies in general, and in their applicability to desalination.  But the power of supply and demand will impose itself: growing populations facing diminishing water supplies will create the economic and financial incentives to adopt renewable technologies for improved water resource management efficiency.  The problems are more of political-economy and of vested interests that actively work against the introduction of new technologies that threaten their economic interests. This is true both in developed as well as emerging economies.

3. AD: What kind of impacts would such projects have on a country's economy given their heavy financial costs?

NS: This is a false issue.  The GCC and other countries will have to invest to produce power, provide water & transport and other utilities for their young and rapidly growing populations. Such infrastructure investments can either rely on traditional, fossil fuel, high carbon generating technologies or adopt renewable technology solutions which would help decarbonise their economies. Increasingly renewable technologies are competitive. More R&D, increased diffusion and utilization of renewable technologies will lead to more innovation and discoveries that will lower cost curves of activities using renewable technologies. Eventually they will become dominant in much the same way that fossil fuel technologies drove out and replaced human and animal power based technologies. Importantly for the GCC and other countries that have the comparative advantage, given their location, to harness solar, wind and other power, the cost of adoption of renewable technologies will be lower. A household investing in solar panels or a solar power plant investment in the GCC has an absolute advantage over a household or public utility in, say, Germany that would undertake similar investments. The problem is that the incentives are highly skewed in the opposite direction in the GCC as a result of access to cheap, subsidized fossil fuel based technologies. Why would I invest in solar panels if I have access to cheap, fossil fuel based power?

4. AD: Desalination plants powered by renewable energy seem to provide a future solution to the water crisis. Is there a more immediate solution that would be as effective?

NS: The answer is yes. The most immediate solution is through infrastructure investment in “intelligent” water management and to provide incentives to encourage households, business, the public sector and the general public to use less water. The incentives should be through the efficient pricing of water resources and their utilization, as well as non-price mechanisms such as the imposition of quotas or fines. The point is that water is a scarce resource and should be priced accordingly. Many countries of the GCC and the Middle East do not even monitor or meter water usage. But the MENA region is one of the most water scarce regions of the world. Although home to 6.3% of the world’s population (and growing), the region has access to only 1.4 % of the world’s renewable fresh water (and declining). To make matters worse, the region currently exploits over 75% of its available renewable water resources due to its burgeoning population, increased urbanization, mispricing of water and rapid economic growth. Saudi Arabia in an ill-fated drive to increase food production has –over a 15 year period- largely depleted its water aquifer that had taken millions of years to accumulate! It will be forced to stop its wheat production by 2016. Yemen is already a hydrological basket case and Gaza is an ecological disaster.

Better ecosystem and water management systems, improved water use efficiency and pricing, and investment in water infrastructure are all part of the answer. Water is a shared resource and must be managed on a local, basin and national basis.

5. AD: Is it possible to use renewable energy on wastewater treatment plants in the same way as they are used in desalination plants? Would using renewable wastewater treatment provide a more sustainable option to renewable desalination?

NS: Yes, of course. Solar panels have already been installed to provide power for wastewater treatment plants in the US, Germany and China. It could easily have wide applicability in the GCC. Furthermore, energy derived from wastewater treatment can even be used as a renewable energy resource itself. Such recovery processes can produce electrical energy from the utilization of methane rich digester gas, from thermal conversion of biomass, from bio-solid products used by other entities and more. The cheap availability of fossil fuel-based energy & technologies has meant that renewable energy R&D and RE technologies and applications has been limited. This is now changing as RE is becoming cost and financially competitive and there is growing political conviction of the need to address climate change and decarbonise our economies and environment. I believe the coming decade will witness a rapid advancement in RE R&D and wide application and use.



Note: The Arab Water Source team would like to express its thanks and gratitude to Dr. Nasser Saidi for sharing his time and insights on water scarcity in the GCC with us.

كتابة أمير دقاق 

شهد العام 2013 تحول في التاريخ عندما اجتاحت العاصفة اليكسا منطقة الشرق الأوسط وشمال أفريقياحيث
 جلبت العواصف الثلجية والأمطار الغزيرة والرياح الجليدية لهذه المنطقة التي لم تشهد مثل هذه العاصفة منذ أكثر من 100 عام.  حيث تسببت العاصفة اليكسا بالفيضانات المدمرة في المدن العربية، مثل غزة، وانقطاع التيار الكهربائي في بعض مناطق الأردن.و تساقطت الثلوج بغزارة في الأردن و التي  غطت الشوارع، مما أعاق الحركة واجبرت الناس على المكوث في منازلهم لعدة أيام.  لقد جلبت هذه العاصفة أيضا المشقة والبؤس لللاجئين السوريين حيث  عانوا البرد القارس في خيام هشة وملاجئ مؤقتة

الجوانب الايجابيه

لا نريد التقليل من شأن  الصعوبات و المعاناه الانفه الذكر التي تسببت بها اليكسا الا ان  مثل هذه العاصفه من شأنها ان تكون مفيده من جانب واحد الا وهو كميه المياه التي جلبت للمنطقة. لقد جلبت العاصفة اليكسا  وفره من المياه لمنطقه تعاني من شح شديد فيه. تأثيرات شح المياه اصبحت محسوسه بشكل واضح وسريع في جميع انحاء المنطقه,حيث تؤثر على بلدان مثل الاردن ومصر وفلسطين. وبالتالي فأن هذا الانهمار من الماء  يمكن ان يجلب بعض الراحه من حيث  وفره المياه مع جريان مياه الامطار وتساقط الثلوج الذي يعد مصدرا للمياه العذبه

ولكن للاسف فأن هذه المصادر اديرت بصوره سيئه جدا مما تسببت بحدوث الفيضانات و اغلاق الطرق والشوارع بالثلوج. مياه الامطار الفائضه اختلطت مع مياه الصرف الصحي مسببه فيضان من مياه الصرف الصحي غمرت جميع انحاء المدن و البلدات المحليه . مما نتج عن ذلك حدوث مشاكل صحيه ضاره بين السكان المقيمين, الذين دعوا  للخروج بحلول سريعه  لمعاناتهم

حل واحد يمكن استخدامه الا و هوحصاد مياه الفيضان و كميات الثلوج الكبيره. حصاد مثل مصادر المياه هذه  من شانه ان يقلل من اثار ندره المياه و الحد من الاضرار الماديه  للمدن و البلديات
.حالما يتم جمع مصادر المياه هذه , وجب عليهم معالجتها قبل استعمالها .و ما ان تتم معالجتها يمكن استخدام المياه في نشاطات متنوعه كالري او اي نوع من الاستخدامات المنزليه

دراسه حاله – عمان

على مدار العاصفة ، شهدت عمان كميات وافرة من الثلوج والأمطار التي وضعت المدينة في ما بدا وكأنه طريق مسدود. وقد اضحى السكان غير قادر على الذهاب إلى العمل وأداء روتينهم اليومي . وقد غطت الثلوج  الشوارع التي وصلت إلى 3 أقدام ، مما جعل من الصعب جدا التنقل عليها . على الرغم من أن تساقط الثلوج كان له  تداعياته الضارة ، فهو مصدر للمياه العذبة . أن حصاد تلك المياه و الثلوج التي انهمرت  كان يمكن ان يكون إجراء بسيط نسبيا من شأنه ان يجنب  المدينه من الطريق المسدود التي وصلت اليه.

ان مثل هذا  الإجراء يتطلب قوى عاملة ، جنبا إلى جنب مع شاحنات ناقله ، لتعين الخروج إلى الشوارع و البدء في جمع أكبر قدر ممكن من الثلوج .حالما يتم جمعها، سيتم نقلها إلى أقرب محطة لمعالجة مياه الصرف الصحي ، مثل محطة معالجة مياه صرف السمرة التي  تقع في  منطقه عمان الرصيفة الزرقاء الكبرى (هناك حاليا 26 محطه معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي في الأردن) .حالما يتم  معالجتها فان  المياه المنتجة يمكن أن تضاف إلى منظومه شبكه أنابيب المياه وتوزيعها على البيوت

:حصاد ومعالجة هذه المصادر المائية تخفف من آثار ندرة المياه حتى لو لفترة زمنية قصيرة. فهو مفيد من حيث عدة طرق

(تتيح لطبقات المياه الجوفية و الأنهار الوقت للتجديد (حتى لو لفترة قصيرة

(يقلل من التكاليف المالية التي تنفق على استخراج المياه (لفترة زمنية قصيرة

(يقلل من كمية الوقود الأحفوري المستخدم أثناء استخراج المياه (الحد من اطلاق غاز  ثاني اوكسيد الكربون

.ازاله الثلوج من الشوارع  التي تمكن الناس من العوده إلى روتين حياتهم اليومية  و عملهم

للتغلب على التحديات

وغني عن القول ، معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي لديها جوانبها السيئه . الأولى، هي الطاقة المكثفة و متطلباتها الماليه. وثانيها ، فإنه يتطلب قدرات تكنولوجية متقدمة للغاية.اما الثالث ، فانها تتطلب مساحة كبيرة لتنفيذها. باستثناء الأردن و مقدار قليل من دول اخرى في المنطقة ،  ليس الكثير منهم لديه القدرات الاقتصادية والتكنولوجية للخضوع لمثل  هذا النوع  من إدارة المياه. تتفاقم المشكلة من جراء الصراع السياسي في المنطقة التي تشهده حاليا . دول مثل سوريا وفلسطين لديها قيود سياسية أكثر من غيرها  والتي لا تسمح لها باستخدام هذا المصدر المائي لكامل إمكاناتها

 ومع ذلك ، هناك طرق أبسط لمعالجة مياه الصرف الصحي التي لا تعتمد بشدة اقتصاديا و تقنيا.مثل هذه التقنيات تتطلب مساحة كبيرة حيث يسمح  لمياه الأمطار الزائدة بتخزينها لفترة معينة من الزمن، والذي يسمح للاوساخ بالاستقرار في الجزء السفلي من المنطقة ( التي يتم فيها تخزين المياه). ثم يتم تمرير المياه من خلال شاشة تصفية كبيرة تزيل الاوساخ المتبقية و البكتيريا من الماء. هذه الطريقه لا تعالج المياه كما تعالجها محطات معالجة مياه الصرف الصحي ، لكنها تعالج بما يكفي من أجل إعادة استخدامها لمماراسات معينه مثل الري والغسالات، والاستحمام
 
الخلاصه

مع اعلان الأمم المتحدة عام 2013 "السنة الدولية لتعاون المياه" ,أصبحت ندرة المياه التهديد الأكثر حاليا الذي يواجهه العالم. ندرة المياه  الاكثر حده في منطقة الشرق الأوسط  حيث لا يملك سوى 1٪ من موارد المياه الصالحة للاستخدام في العالم، في حين وجود 5٪ من سكان العالم في هذه المنطقه. ومع زياده تعداد  سكان منطقه الشرق الاوسط أبعد من ذلك، فأن  من المرجح ان تزيد ندرة المياه, مع توقعات تشير إلى أن منطقة الشرق الأوسط  سوف  تنفذ من المياه بحلول عام 2050

 
ترجمة

سلام عبدالكريم عبابنه

مهندسه مدنية في شركة المسار المتحده للمقاولات – مهتمه في مجال البيئه و الطاقة المتجدده

 :يمكن العثور على هذه المقالة على موقع
http://www.ecomena.org/storm-alexa-ar/

By Amir Dakkak

The year 2013 saw history being made when storm Alexa swept across the Middle East and North Africa bringing blizzards, torrential rain and icy winds to a region that hasn’t experienced such a storm in over 100 years. Storm Alexa caused devastating floods in cities such as Gaza, and power cuts in certain areas of Jordan. Heavy snowfall in Jordan covered the streets, hindering mobility and forcing people into their homes for several days. The storm has also brought hardship and misery upon the Syrian refugees enduring the bitter cold in fragile tents and makeshift shelters.

However, with no intention of belittling or undermining the aforementioned difficulties and suffering, such a storm could be beneficial in terms of one aspect: the water it brings to the region. Storm Alexa brought an abundance of water to a region suffering from severe water scarcity. The effects of water scarcity are rapidly being felt across the region, with water shortages affecting countries such as Palestine, Egypt, and Jordan. Therefore, this outpour of water could bring some respite in terms of water availability, with rainwater runoff and snowfall being large sources of fresh water. Sadly these sources have been very poorly managed causing floods, and snow covered streets. Flooded rainwater has mixed with wastewater triggering an overflow of wastewater throughout local cities and towns. This has produced adverse health problems among the resident populations, who are calling out for rapid solutions to their strife. One solution that can be utilized is harvesting floodwater and the large amounts of snowfall available. Harvesting such water sources would help reduce the effects of water scarcity, and reduce physical harm to cities and towns. Once these water sources are collected, they must be treated before they are reused. Once treated, the water can be used for a variety of water intensive activities such as irrigation or any type of domestic use.

A cry for wastewater management, case study: Amman, Jordan

Over the course of the storm, Amman has seen ample amounts of snow and rainfall that have put the city in what seemed like a standstill. Residents were snowed in unable to go to work and perform their daily routines. The streets were covered with snow that reached up to 3 feet, making it very difficult to move about. Although the snowfall had its detrimental repercussions, it is a source of fresh water.  Harvesting it would have been a fairly simple procedure. The procedure would require manpower, along with trucks, to set out to the streets and start collecting as much snow as possible. Once collected, it would be transported to the nearest wastewater treatment plant, such as the Samra wastewater plant located in the greater Amman Russeifa-Zarqa area (there are currently 26 wastewater treatment plants that exist in Jordan). Once treated the water produced can be added into the water pipe systems and distributed among households. Harvesting and treating these water sources eases the effects of water scarcity even if for a short time period. This is beneficial in 4 ways:

1.     It allows over used water aquifers and rivers time to replenish (even if for a short period).

2.     It reduces the financial costs spent on water extraction (for a short time period).

3.     It reduces the amount of fossil fuels used during water extraction (reducing CO2 release).

4.     It removes snow off the streets allowing people to go back to their daily routines, and to their work.

Of course wastewater treatment has its downsides. First, it is energy intensive and financially demanding. Second, it requires very advanced technological capabilities. Third, it requires a large area in which it is to be implemented. With the exception of Jordan and a handful of other countries in the region, not many have the economic and technological capabilities to undergo this type water management. The problem is further exacerbated by the political strife the region is currently experiencing. Countries such as Syria and Palestine have more political constraints than others that do not allow them to use this water source to its full potential. 

However, there are simpler ways to treat wastewater that are not so economically and technologically reliant. Such techniques require a large area where the excess rainwater is allowed to be stored for a certain period of time, which allows the waste to settle at the bottom of the area (in which the water is stored). The water is then passed through a large filtering screen that removes the remaining waste and bacteria from the water. This method does not treat water as thoroughly as wastewater treatment plants, but it treats it enough for it to be reused for certain water intensive practices (e.g. irrigation, washing machines, showering).

What to take away

Water scarcity has become the most immediate threat the world is facing, with the UN declaring the year 2013 “International Year of Water cooperation”. Water scarcity is further intensified in the MENA region because it only holds 1% of the usable water resources in the world, while having 5% of the world’s population. With the population set to increase even further, water scarcity is likely to increase, with predictions indicating that the MENA region is to run out of water by the year 2050. Although harvesting the water provided by storm Alexa does not provide a long-term solution to water scarcity in the region, it offers a short-term respite from its effects. This gives countries more time to plan ahead and to develop further in their quest to mitigate water scarcity. And with scientists indicating that such storms are to become even more rare due to the effects of climate change, these events must be taken full advantages of.

كتابة أمير دقاق 

تعاني مصر في السنوات الاخيرة من شح شديد في المياه و يعد توزيع المياه غير المتكافئ و اساءه استخدام موارد المياه وتقنيات الري غير الفعاله بعض العوامل الرئيسيه التي تلعب دورا مدمرا للأمن المائي فيالبلاد.

يعد نهر النيل شريان الحياة في مصر حيث  يغطي متطلبا ت الزراعة و الصناعه و هو المصدر الرئيسيلمياه الشرب للسكان. ان ارتفاع معدلات النمو السكاني و التنمية الاقتصادية السريعة  في دول حوض النيل  بالإضافة الى التلوث و التدهور  البيئي آخذُ باستنزاف الموارد المائية في مصر.

 و تواجه مصر   عجزا مائيا يقدر  بسبع بليون متر مكعب سنويا .وفي حقيقة الامر فإن الامم المتحدة قد حذرت من نفاذ المياه في مصر بحلول عام 2025.

دعونا نلقي نظره فاحصه على العوامل الرئيسيه التي تؤثر على الامن المائي في مصر.

الانفجار السكاني

ان العدد السكاني في مصر اّخذ بالتكاثر بمعدل ينذر بالخطر , ولقد زاد بنسبه 41 بالمئه منذ بداية التسعينيات. تشير التقارير الاخيرة من قبل الحكومة الى ان حوالي 4,700   حديثي الولادة تضاف الى عدد السكان كل أسبوع و تشير التوقعات المستقبليه  الى ان عدد السكان سيرتفع من 80 مليون الى 98.7 مليون بحلول عام 2025.

ان الزيادة السكانية السريعة من شأنها ان تضاعف الضغط على الامداد المائي من خلال زيادة الاحتياجات المائية  للاستهلاك المحلي و زيادة استخدام مياه الري  لتلبيه الطلب على الغذاء.

الري غير الفعال

تحصل مصر على نسبه اقل من 80 ملم من الهطول المطري سنويا,وتعد ما نسبته 6 بالمئه من اراضيها فقط صالحا للزراعة وما تبقى فهو صحراء.وهذا بدوره  يؤدي الى الافراط في الري واستخدام تقنيات الري المسرف كالري السطحي ( الري بالغمر) و هي طريقه قديمه للري حيث يتم اغراق القطعة الزراعيه بالمياه.

في الوقت الحالي,فان شبكة الري تستمد بالكامل من سد اسوان العالي و هذا بدوره ينظم اكثر من 18,000 ميل من القنوات الرئيسية و القنوات الفرعيه التي تروي الاراضي الزراعيه المجاوره للنهر. يعد هذا النظام غير فعال , حيث يقدر معدل الفاقد من مياه النيل بفعل التبخر 3 مليارات متر مكعب سنويا . ان من شأن  انخفاض الامداد المائي  ان يقود الى انخفاض الاراضي الصالحة للزراعة و حيث ان قطاع الزراعه يشكل اكبر رب عمل للشباب فان شح المياه يمكن ان يقود الى زيادة معدلات البطالة.

التلوث

 اصبحت المخلفات الزراعية والنفايات الصناعية السائلة  و مياه الصرف الصحي ُتلقى بغير اهتمام في نهر النيل مما يجعلها تدريجيا غير صالحة للاستهلاك البشري. اضف الى ذلك فإن مياه الصرف الصحي القادمة من الاحياء الفقيرة ومناطق عديدة في القاهره اضحت تفرغ في نهر النيل وذلك لنقص  المحطات المعالجة لتلك المياه.

 تلك المخلفات الزراعية عاده ما تحتوي على ملوثات من مبيدات الحشرات و الاعشاب مما يؤثر سلبا على مياه النهر. كذلك النفايات الصناعية السائله غالبا ما تكون شديدة السميه وتحتوي على معادن ثقيلة و التي يمكن ان تتحد مع المواد الصلبه العالقة في مياه الصرف الصحي لتشكل الوحل. كل هذه العوامل مجتمعه معا من شأنها ان تلوث نهر النيل و تنذر بشؤم للأجيال القادمة.

الاضطرابات الاقليميه

تسيطر مصر على غالبيه الموارد المائية المستخرجه من نهر النيل بمقتضى معاهدة الحقبه الاستعمارية التي تضمن حصة  ما نسبته 90 بالمئه من نهر النيل و تمنع الدول المجاوره لها من الحصول ولو على قطره واحده من النيل من دون الحصول على إذنها .وعلى الرغم من ذلك فان هذا لا يمنع  البلدان الواقعه على نهر النيل  مثل بوروندي و اثيوبيا من استغلال الاضطرابات السياسيه التي تعصف بمصر وكسب المزيد من السيطرة على حقوق  النيل. ورغم ان نهر النيل يزود مصر بما نسبته 95 بالمئه من المياه العذبة   فإن فقدان بعض الامدادات المائية يمكن ان يشكل متاعب إضافيه لمصر.

الختام

إن قضيه المياه في مصر تتصاعد بنسبه مثيره للقلق. بحلول عام 2020 ,سوف تستهلك مصر بما يقدَر 20 بالمئه اكثر  من المياه مما كانت عليه. مع فقدان قبضتها على النيل  فان شح المياه في مصر  من شأنه ان يهدد استقرار البلاد و الهيمنة الاقليميه. و هذا يحتم على الحكومة المصريه و جميع السكان التحرك بسرعة وبشكل حاسم للتخفيف من شح المياه  وتطبيق اساليب و تقنيات اكثر فاعليه للمحافظة على المياه و منع تلوثها  ووضع وتطوير خطط من شأنها السيطرة على تلوث المياه وجعل تقنيات الري اكثر فاعليه و كفاءة و ذلك لتجنب وقوع كارثة.

ترجمة

سلام عبدالكريم عبابنه

مهندسه مدنية في شركة المسار المتحده للمقاولات – مهتمه في مجال البيئه و الطاقة المتجدده


 :يمكن العثور على هذه المقالة على موقع 
http://www.ecomena.org/water-egypt-ar

By Amir Dakkak

Waking up one morning, Jamila (not her real name) was planning to do both her laundry and take a shower before embarking on her daily routines. Once the laundry was done, Jamila came to realize that there was no more water left for her to shower. This is the reality of life for many Jordanians where water is in limited supply and not a basic right, as many perceive it to be. With decisions like this plaguing Jordanian lives, one fears what the future holds for water in the country. 

Jordan is one of the most arid countries in the Middle East and is facing severe water shortages. Current per capita supply is 200 cubic meters per person, less than a third of the global average, which stands at 617 cubic meters per person. To make matters worse, it is projected that its population (currently at 6 million) will reach 9 million by 2025 causing a decline in the aforementioned per capita water supply to only 91 cubic meters per person (less than a sixth of the recommended average!). The government has been trying to reduce the rising demand for water through publicity and awareness campaigns. Although working on decreasing the previously mentioned demand for water and promoting efficient water use is an important way of reducing water scarcity, it is still not enough.

Groundwater resources account for 54% of Jordan’s total water supply, and are being threatened by pollution due to over-pumping of aquifers, seepage from landfill sites, and improper disposal of dangerous chemicals. Due to the large amount of fresh water used from aquifers, governments must try to manage the water supply by proper and efficient distribution, and protecting these water sources from pollution. Therefore, managing the supply end of water resources as well as the demand end is of great importance.

The government must start its water supply management by enforcing regulation on water extraction from groundwater aquifers. The lack of such strict enforcement allows for illegal private sector well drilling, and instigates unsustainable extraction of water from the aquifers, which are currently being used at twice the recharge rate. This in turn prevents the aquifer from naturally replenishing, causing it to diminish over time and eventually run dry.

The government must also take initiative in renovating old and rusted water pipes that supply many homes with the water they need. For example, in the United States alone, water leaks waste 1 trillion gallons of water every year, which is equivalent to the annual water usage of Los Angeles, Chicago, and Miami combined. The previous example illustrates the severity of the damage that can be caused by leaks if they are not fixed. Furthermore, rusted pipes can cause a change in the color and taste of the water, triggering additional water loss through the disposal of dirty water. Therefore, renovating old pipes, and replacing them is very important.

A key component of water supply management is utilizing alternative sources of water such as wastewater treatment plants, which allow the re-use of waste and brackish water. This not only creates an additional water supply source, but also reduces the reliance on the natural water supplies, such as ground water, giving aquifers more time to replenish and recharge. Importantly, wastewater treatment is a potential source of energy, through harnessing the methane produced by the sewage water. Furthermore, water treatment plants reduce environmental pollution by extracting wastewater that is usually disposed off into rivers and aquifers in the form of runoffs. The government has been planning to build wastewater treatment plants throughout Jordan, such as the Amman-Zarqa wastewater treatment plant. However, these plants have yet to be built, and Jordan has yet to use wastewater treatment to its full potential.

The time to act is now. Soon water scarcity will be too severe to tackle and water supplies will run out. Conclusively, according to the above-mentioned facts, governments must find a balance between managing both the demand for water and the water supply if they are  to tackle the water scarcity plaguing the country.

Photo credit: Tareq

By Amir Dakkak

It has been two years since the Egyptian populace toppled their dictator of three decades with resonating, populist chants for “bread, freedom and social justice.” While freedom and social justice are still a possibility for the people of Egypt, bread could become harder to come by. Egypt has been suffering from severe water scarcity due to the uneven distribution and misuse of resources, and wasteful irrigation techniques. Furthermore, Egypt’s growing population coupled with its weakening grip on the Nile River could lead to an arid future with reports from the United Nations suggesting that Egypt could run out of water by the year 2025. It’s a crisis that could threaten the country’s very existence.

Egypt controls the majority of the water resource extracted from the Nile River due to a colonial-era treaty, which guaranteed Egypt a 90% share of the Nile, and prevented their neighbors from extracting even a single drop from the Nile without permission. However, countries along the Nile such as Burundi, and Ethiopia are taking advantage of the political strife that has engulfed Egypt and are gaining more control over the rights for the Nile. With the Nile supplying 95% of Egypt’s freshwater, losing some of the water supply can cause additional problems for Egypt. However, the most concerning tribulations that are affecting water scarcity in the country are rapid population growth, inefficient irrigation techniques, and water pollution.

Population:

Egypt’s population is mushrooming at an alarming rate. It has increased by 41% since the early 1990’s, and even with the country currently facing a variety of difficulties the population is still rapidly increasing. Reports by the government suggest that around 4,700 newborns are added to the population every week, and according to further projections the population will grow from it’s current total of 80 million to 98.7 million by the year 2025. This rapid population increase intensifies the stress on the country’s water supply in two ways: The first is through personal use like drinking, showering, and cooking. The second is through an increase in food demand, which in turn increases the level of water required for irrigation.

Irrigation Techniques:

Egypt receives less than 80 mm of rainfall a year, and only 6% of the country is arable and agricultural land, with the rest being a hyper-arid desert. This leads to excessive watering and the use of wasteful irrigation techniques such as flood irrigation [a dated method of irrigation where gallons of water are pumped over the crops]. Today, Egypt’s irrigation network draws almost entirely from the Aswan High Dam, which regulates more than 18,000 miles of canals and sub-canals that push out into the country’s farmlands adjacent to the river. This system is highly inefficient, losing as much as 3 billion cubic meters of Nile water per year through evaporation. This could damage the country on several fronts. Not only will this affect the country through water and food stress, but also through unemployment. A further decrease in water supply would lead to a decline in arable land available for agriculture, and with agriculture being the biggest employer of youth in Egypt, water scarcity could lead to increased unemployment levels.

Pollution:

As agriculture, industry, and urbanization develop among the human population, so too do the side effects associated with these practices increased, namely in the form of various pollutants. Agricultural and industrial runoffs, and municipal sewage water are dumped into the Nile River, gradually making its water unfit for human consumption.

Sewage water from slums and many other areas in Cairo is dumped back into the river untreated due to lack of water treatment plants that would treat the wastewater before it is released back into the river.

Agricultural runoffs frequently contain pollutants from pesticides and herbicides, which have negative effects on the river and the people using it.

Industrial runoff is often highly toxic, containing heavy metals that can combine with the suspended solids in domestic wastewater to form muck.

A bleak future:

The water issue in Egypt has reached crisis levels where by 2020 Egypt will be consuming 20% more water than it has, and with its loosening grip on the Nile, water scarcity could endanger the country’s fragile structure. Therefore, governments and the entire population of Egypt must act fast to mitigate water scarcity and develop plans that would install more efficient irrigation techniques, and control water pollution in order to avoid a disaster. However, if progress is not made soon, it is only a matter of time until the population floods into Tahrir Square and starts the second revolution. 

By Amir Dakkak

The water crisis in the West Bank and Gaza is largely overshadowed by the overall political tension between Palestine and Israel. However, the ever-growing water conflict between the two sides is a major impediment to reaching a just and peaceful resolution to the Palestine-Israel conflict, and an essential component for the creation of an independent Palestinian state. 

Ever since the Nakbah in 1948 “Day of Catastrophe” in Arabic, Israel has sought to control the main sources of water, and after the 1967 war Israel managed to control all of the major water sources it shares with Palestine and other neighboring countries such as Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. These sources include the Jordan River, Yarmouk River and the underground water reservoirs underneath the West Bank.

West Bank:

Despite controlling 100% of the water flowing from the Jordan River, the injustice is further highlighted with Israel using 85% of the water from the aquifers within West Bank territory, and Palestinians only receiving 118 million cubic meters (15%). The discrimination in utilization of the resources is evident with Palestinian farms relying on inconsistent rainwater to irrigate their crops, and with Israeli settlement farms using state of the art irrigation systems. Though theoretically Palestinians could drill more wells to help sustain their crops, they are forbidden to do so without acquiring permits from the Israeli military. These permits are difficult, if not impossible to obtain forcing Palestinians to rely on Israeli authorities for access to their own water. This has lead to the per capita water consumption of the West bank to be approximately 73 liters, where as Israel’s per capita water consumption is approximately 242 liters. In other words, per capita use in Israel is three and a half times higher than in the West Bank.

Responding to reports reflecting the injustice in water resource distribution, the Israeli government states that it has responded to the needs of the Palestinians and has increased the quantity of water provided to them far beyond that specified in the Interim Agreement. However, what it fails to mention is that 60% of the water it provides is sold to the Palestinians at inflated prices, which most civilians cannot afford. Therefore, one can conclude that the problem at hand is not the lack of water in the region, but the uneven distribution of water resources between Palestine and Israel.

Gaza:

Since the blockade imposed on Gaza in 2006, it has been dealing with constant raids, bombardment, and attacks from the Israeli army, hindering any kind of development that might occur. One of the greatest sectors affected by the constant raids and bombardment is the water and sanitation sector. During the bombardment and ground excursions, water and sewage pipes are often damaged leaving the area without proper sanitation and without a reliable water source. This has a large effect on Gaza’s only source of water: The Coastal Aquifer underneath the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Reports published by the World Health Organization (WHO) suggest that 95% of this water is unfit for consumption due to the lack of proper sanitation, and that Gaza could become unlivable as early as the year 2016. However, the World Bank and the Islamic Development Bank have recently approved $6.4 million and $11.14 million respectively for the development of the Gazan water and sewage infrastructure, in an attempt to improve the highly damaged sanitation facilities and the highly contaminated water supply.

The Solution?

Such donations and contributions provide a large boost to better the livelihood of the Palestinians but do not represent a sustainable solution to the problems at hand. The first problem requiring immediate attention is the unjust distribution in water resource use. In order for there to be a peaceful resolution to the conflict between Palestine and Israel, there must be an equal distribution in water resource use between both parties allowing each enough water for development and basic human needs.

The second problem is the inability to create a Palestinian community. The imposed blockade on Gaza and the construction of the “separation barrier” that surrounds the West Bank give Israel full control over the resources entering and exiting the Palestinian territories. This greatly restricts any plans for the development and construction of proper sanitation and water storage/extraction facilities that allow the Palestinian communities to thrive.

In a nutshell:

It is obvious that there is a great inequality in water use within Palestine, where daily per capita water consumption in certain areas reaches as low as 37-44 liters, and if the two countries do not share the water resources equally, “Peace” shall never develop.

By Amir Dakkak

Most of today’s government leaders spend ample amounts of time, money, and political capital towards improving agriculture, infrastructure, clean energy and trade. Unfortunately they rarely invest these resources on the resource on which those outcomes depend on: Water. This precious resource is being poorly managed and is quickly disappearing.

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is one of the top 10 water scarce countries in the world and has a water consumption rate of 350 liters per capita, 100 times more than the global average. The UAE is also experiencing a rapid increase in population levels, which naturally leads to an increase in demand for water. Adequate supplies of clean and healthy water are essential for the socioeconomic development and health of the country. As such, it is important to assess how the UAE government is managing its resources in order to accommodate the high population levels, and explore ways by which it can better its management techniques.

In 2009, the UAE total water demand was estimated to be 4.5 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM). The water used comes from groundwater (72%), desalination (21%), and retreated water (7%). This water is distributed among three sectors:

·      Private household sector.

·      Agricultural sector.

·      Industrial sector.

Private household sector: This sector accounts for 24% of all water consumption in the UAE. One of the largest contributors to water consumption is the use of air conditioning (AC) systems. AC systems have become a necessity in a country known for its unbearable high temperatures. Every household, restaurant, café, or building requires one or more. An AC system not only consumes vast amounts of energy, but also uses large amounts of water via chilled water pumps. There is no data on the exact amount of water used to cool an AC system, but considering that they are on most hours of the day, one could assume that AC systems use up large amounts of water. Other factors include the over-consumption of water bottles and water misuse. The UAE has the highest per capita bottled water consumption at 285 liters/capita. The water used to fill the bottles is mainly desalinated water, which costs approximately 11.8 billion AED annually. In addition, it takes around 3 liters of water in order to make 1 liter of bottled water. Water misuse is a large factor in slowing down water management. An example of misuse is garden or landscape irrigation through spray irrigation. About 12 to15 liters per m2 are used a day. In order to battle overconsumption by private households, the UAE has:

1.     Ensured tap water is safe to drink.

2.     Introduced new tariff system based on a water meter.

3.     Launched various campaigns to raise awareness.

4.     Introduced new methods of irrigation such as subsurface drip irrigation.

Agricultural Sector: This sector accounts for two thirds of all water consumption in the UAE.  The aforementioned rapid population growth has led to a surge in food demand, which in turn has led to additional stress on water resources. One of the largest contributors to water wastage is irrigation efficiency. As mentioned above, it takes about 12-15 liters to water 1 m2 a day. Thirty percent of this can be lost to evaporation while using traditional methods such as spray irrigation. Responding accordingly, the UAE has taken crucial steps to battle this crisis. First, the government has introduced new irrigation techniques that are more efficient, such as drip irrigation, which use 35% less water than traditional systems. The UAE has also moved away from crops that are water-intensive, and is also experimenting with using other types of water (e.g. wastewater) for irrigation. A change to less water-intensive crops coupled with a change in irrigation techniques would dramatically decrease the amount of water used in this sector.

Industrial Sector: Only 9% of water consumption is attributed to this sector. Most of the water is used to cool and clean away impurities from machinery, which is then transformed into runoffs causing pollution in nearby environments. The wastewater produced is not lost and could be used again. Treated wastewater is ideal for irrigation. The UAE government has taken steps into utilizing this resource. For example, in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi alone, a total of 600 million cubic meters of treated wastewater is produced a year, but only 352 million cubic meters is used for landscaping and district cooling. Thus due to the decline in water resources, wastewater will need to play a more prominent role in all three sectors if the country is to move forward.

Recommendations: There are many ways that can further improve the UAE’s approach to this crisis. First, as mentioned above the UAE has insured that it supplies clean and drinkable tap water from desalination plants. Unfortunately, on its journey to households, the water is contaminated in two ways: The first is through ageing and rusted pipes. Water flowing through ageing pipelines would become contaminated with bacteria, which makes it undrinkable. The second is through storage tanks. Dead birds, rats, insects, and metal can be found in some storage tanks, which would eventually cause the water to become harmful. This happens because storage tank cleaning, which has to be done approximately every 6 months, is left to the owner of the property. Because there is no law enforcing it, most landlords are not too keen to spend money on it or simply forget to clean them. To rectify this, the government should consider:

1.     Renovate ageing pipelines to stop water contamination.

2.     Enforce a law requiring landlords to clean storage tanks.

3.     Send out professionals to aid in tank cleaning.

4.     Hire experts to carry out inspections to keep records.

5.     Incentivize people to use tap water by increasing bottled water prices.

6.     Educate people about the benefits of consuming tap water.

Second, irrigation is an essential aspect of daily life. It is used in many places such as gardens and farms. Although the government has introduced efficient irrigation, it isn’t widely used in the UAE. What is suggested here would be to enforce the use of drip irrigation in farms. By enforcing drip irrigation, the government would be saving up to 8 liters/m2 a day. In order to do so, the government would need to:

1.     Invoke farmers that can afford to install drip irrigation to do so.

2.     Subsidize the installation of the systems for farms that aren’t able to afford them.

3.     Educate farmers on how to operate and maintain the new irrigation systems.

4.     Educate farmers about the future effects of water scarcity on agriculture.

To put it in perspective: There are currently 100,000 hectares of cultivated land in the UAE. By implementing this law the government would be ensuring the use of efficient irrigation methods that would reduce water consumption by an estimate of 4 billion liters/day.

In a country where water might one day become more expensive than oil, one cannot ignore that the country is facing a crisis. The UAE is one of the largest consumers of water per capita globally, but is also one of the most water scarce countries in the world. With an annual increase in population, managing its water resources is crucial. The biggest challenge for the UAE is not finding different water sources, but decreasing the demand for it. Therefore, implementing policies and legislations to support water conservation is key to sustain the country’s continuous growth.

By Amir Dakkak

Driving down the streets of Dubai, one cannot ignore the large puddles of water that cover the side of the streets and sidewalks. These puddles, which are the result of attempted irrigation of green patches and plants, are a big waste. As a result, a very important question comes to mind: Does the UAE have that much water to spare? The answer is no. The UAE is one of the top 10 most water scarce countries in the world, and has one of the highest per capita water usage globally. With 550 liters per person per day, a UAE resident consumes more than double the global national average of 250 liters per person per day.  Water in the UAE is in very short supply.

Why do people use this wasteful method? Simple: it's the cheapest and fastest way to irrigate the plants, or it may seem so. Although the up front costs are cheaper, there's a large hidden cost of water that underlies the use of conventional irrigation methods. There are a number of problems concerning spray irrigation but the most important is its inefficiency. When using spray irrigation (sprinkler systems) in a country as arid as the UAE, 60% of the water evaporates before it is absorbed by the plants. As a result, only 40% of the water intended for irrigation is used, which itself is not evenly distributed. This lack of uneven distribution coupled with the decrease in the amount of water used is detrimental to the plants' health.

However, as awareness about water scarcity increases, more efficient methods are being used. Drip irrigation is one of the methods being used as an alternative to spray irrigation. Drip irrigation consists of perforated tubes placed along the floor, or buried near the roots of plants, which deposit water directly to the plant roots. The result is not only a drastic decrease in the amount of water evaporated, but also uses 25% less water than spray irrigation systems. 

A second method being used in the UAE is an irrigation system consisting of a gravel and pipes 60cm below the surface. Before anything is planted, the plot is excavated and lined with a water-proof tarp followed by layers of gravel and dirt placed around a half pipe. The pipe is drilled at strategic areas in order to let water flow through but sand and soil stay out. This method only requires 2.5 litres of water in order to maintain a plot which usually requires 10 to 12 litres. (To learn more Click here.)

Some are quite simple and you can take action immediately:
1. Adjust sprinklers so only the grass and plants are watered and not the streets and side walks. 
2. Water during cooler times of the day such as in the morning or evening to avoid large amounts of evaporation. 
3. Coordinate irrigation with seasonal rains.
4. Grow more drought tolerant plants.

Other solutions could be more complicated such as transitioning to more efficient methods of irrigation (see above). Of course the government has a role to play in incentivizing the adoption of environmentally friendly behaviors. The government of the UAE can:
1. subsidize the installation of more complex irrigation systems (e.g. drip irrigation).
2. Provide preferential loan and credit conditions for farmers that abide by environmentally friendly laws or standards. 
3. Launch different campaigns across the the UAE that aim at educating farmers and residents about environmentally conscious water consumption.  

With water scarcity continuing to reach all time low's, there isn't enough water to be equally distributed between the people of the UAE let alone water to waste. The time to act is now.

References: Gulf news, Government of Dubai.